Cross section
Paint samples from William Strickland’s St. John’s Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, PA.
Lead white, also known as white lead, is one of the oldest and most historically significant pigments. It has been widely used in art and decoration for over two millennia. Known for its brilliant opacity and excellent working properties, this basic lead carbonate (PbCO₃·Pb(OH)₂) pigment was a staple for artists from antiquity to the 19th century. Its widespread use in easel painting, as well as in architectural finish and various artistic traditions across cultures, made it the most important white pigment before modern alternatives like titanium dioxide were introduced. [i]
Historical Use
The earliest known production of lead white dates back to ancient Greece and Rome. Early accounts from authors like Theophrastus[ii], Vitruvius[iii], and Pliny and Elder [iv] describe how it was made by exposing metallic lead to vinegar vapors in the presence of carbon dioxide, leading to the formation of basic lead carbonate. This method was later refined during the medieval period, and by the 17th century, the “Dutch” or “stack” process became the dominant production method.[v] In China as early as 300 B.C, Lead was corroded in clay pots filled with vinegar and stacked in sheds with layers of fermenting organic materials like horse manure, producing the necessary heat and carbon dioxide.[vi]
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Lead white’s versatility allowed it to be used across various artistic mediums, including oil painting, tempera, watercolor, and encaustic techniques. Artists appreciated its smooth texture, high opacity, and quick-drying properties when mixed with oil. The pigment was used extensively for underpainting, highlighting, and mixing with other colors to create lighter tints. Dutch portrait artists, like Rembrandt, frequently used lead white to paint the iconic white collars and cuffs in their works.[vii]
Optical and Material Properties
One of the most prized characteristics of lead white is its high refractive index, giving it superior opacity to other white pigments. Its particles are finely divided, which allows it to form a durable and smooth surface when applied in layers. In oil-based media, lead white requires only a small amount of oil to form a workable paste, contributing to its quick drying and hardening properties. This also makes it highly resistant to swelling or cracking over time, which is why it has been a favored choice for centuries.[viii]
Lead white is slightly reactive to acids, and its permanence as a pigment has been well-documented. However, it is susceptible to darkening when exposed to sulfurous gases, which can cause it to form black lead sulfide (PbS). Despite this, in well-preserved conditions, lead white can endure for centuries without noticeable changes. . [ix]
References
[i] Robert L. Feller et al., eds., “3 Lead White,” in Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics v.2 (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1993), 67–87.
[ii] Theophrastus, translator Earle R. Caley, and translator John F. C. Richards, Theophrastus. On Stones, accessed October 7, 2024, http://archive.org/details/theophrastus-stones-caley-richards-1956.
[iii] Vitruvius Pollio and Morris Hicky Morgan, Vitruvius : The Ten Books on Architecture (Cambridge : Harvard university Press, 1914), http://archive.org/details/vitruviustenbook00vitruoft.
[iv] K. C. Bailey, The Elder Pliny’s Chapters on Chemical Subjects (E. Arnold & Company, 1929).
[v] Robert L. Feller et al., eds., “2 Orpiment and Realgar,” in Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics v.2 (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1993), 67–87.
[vi] Joseph Needham 1900-1995., Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge ; Cambridge University Press, 1954).
[vii] David. Bomford, Art in the Making : Rembrandt (London : National Gallery, 1988).
[viii] Feller et al., “3 Lead White.”
[ix] Feller et al.