2 fragments of Carrara marble carved for acanthus leaves from a Corinthian capital.

Freeze-thaw damage in cast stone occurs when absorbed water fills its pores, freezes, and expands by roughly 9%, causing internal pressure, cracking, and surface spalling. This cyclical, slow-acting deterioration is worsened by high porosity, moisture saturation, and deicing salts.

Rounded aggregate, such as river pebbles, provides superior workability and flow, requiring less cement paste and water due to lower surface area and friction. However, it offers lower tensile strength and bonding than angular aggregate due to reduced particle interlocking.

Fragment of a thumb molding with discoloration caused by metal corrosion.